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COVID 19: The Relationship Among Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE 2), Renin-Angiotensin-Aldesterone System (RAS), and Chronic Diseases

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 2 Sayı: 2, 61 - 72, 30.08.2021

Meryem Topal Sevim Beyza Öztürk Sarıkaya Fevzi Topal

Öz

SARS CoVID-2 (COVID-19), the seventh type of coronavirus that causes infections in humans, has become a major threat to human life worldwide. The virus, which emerged in Wuhan and spread from there to the whole world, has become a major threat, especially in elderly and chronic patients (hypertension, Diabetes Mellitus (DM), heart disease) today. It is very important to know why this virus is more effective in chronic patients, in the prevention or treatment of the disease. Therefore, the study describes the relationship of the COVID-19 virus with chronic diseases. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE2) is particularly involved in vital organs such as the kidney, heart, liver, and lungs. The entry of the COVID-19 virus into the cell is through the ACE2 enzyme. In our study, the reasons why this virus affects chronic patients more than other people and its relationship with ACE2, Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone metabolism are tried to be elucidated.

Anahtar Kelimeler

ACE 2 Chronic disease Corona virus SARS CoVID-2 COVID-19 Renin

Kaynakça

  • Ahn, D. G., Shin, H. J., Kim, M. H., . . . & Kim, S. J. (2020). Current Status of Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Therapeutics, and Vaccines for Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID 19) Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology,, 30(3), 313-324. Arendse, L. B., Danser, A. H. J., Poglitsch, M., Touyz, R. M., Jr Burnett, J. C., Lorens-Cortes, C., . . . & Sturrock, E. D. (2019). Novel therapeutic approaches targeting the renin-angiotensin system and associated peptides in hypertension and heart failure. Pharmacol Rev., 71(539-570).
  • Baker, K. M., & Kumar, R. (2006). Intracellular angiotensin II induces cell proliferation independent of AT1 receptor. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol, 291, 995-1001.
  • Baur, L. H. B., Schipperheyn, J. J., Laarse, A. v. d., Souverijn, J. H. M., Frolich, M., & de Groot, A. (1995). Combining salicylate and enalapril in patients with coronary artery disease and heart failure. Br. Heart. J., 73, 227-236.
  • Boehm, M., & Nabel, E. G. (2002). Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2-a new cardiac regulator. N. Engl. J. Med., 347, 1795-1797.
  • Burnier, M. (2001). Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers. Circulation, 103, 904-912.
  • Chen, Y., Guo, Y., Pan, Y., & Zhao, Z. J. (2020). Structure analysis of the receptor binding of 2019-nCoV. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 525, 135-140.
  • Corvol, P., Williams, T. A., & Soubrier, F. (1995). Peptidyl dipeptidase A: angiotensin I-converting enzyme. Methods Enzymol., 248, 283-305.
  • Çiçek, Z., Akıllıoğlu, K., & Doğan, A. (2019). Local and Systemic Renin Angiotensin System. Archives Medical Review Journal, 28(4), 259-269.
  • Danser, A. H. J., Epstein, M., & Batlle, D. (2020). Renin-angiotensin system blockers and the COVID-19 pandemic at present there is no evidence to abandon renin-angiotensin system blockers. Hypertension, 75, 1382-1385.
  • Devaux, C. A., Rolain, J. M., & Raoult, D. (2020). ACE2 Receptor polymorphism: Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, hypertension, multi-organ failure, and COVID-19 disease outcome. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect., 53, 425-435.
  • Diao, B., Wang, C., Wang, R., Feng, Z., Tan, Y., Wang, H., . . . & Chen, Y. (2020). Human kidney is a target for novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Front. Immunol., 11, 827.
  • Fehr, A. R., & Perlman, S. (2015). Coronaviruses: An overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Methods Mol. Biol., 1282, 1-23.
  • Ferrario, C. M. J. (2006). Role of angiotensin II in cardiovascular disease-therapeutic implications of more than a century of research. Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst., 7, 3-14.
  • Fisher, N. D., & Hollenberg, N. K. (2005). Renin inhibition: what are the therapeutic opportunities? . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 16, 592-599.
  • Gradman, A. H., & Kad, R. (2008). Renin inhibition in hypertension. . J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 51, 519-528.
  • Guan, W. J., Ni, Z. Y., Hu, Y., Liang, W. H., Ou, C. Q., He, J. X., . . . & Zhong, N. S. (2020). Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. . N. Engl. J. Med., 382, 1708-1720.
  • Heeneman, S., Sluimer, J., & Daemen, M. J. (2007). Angiotensin-converting enzyme and vascular remodeling. Circ. Res., 101, 441-454.
  • Imai, Y., Kuba, K., Rao, S., Huan, Y., Guo, F., Guan, B., . . . & Penninger, J. M. (2005). Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from severe acute lung failure. Nature, 436, 112-116.
  • Inal, S. (2016). Middle East respiratory syndrome-coronavirus infection. Okmeydani Med. J., 32, 37-45.
  • Iwai, M., & Horiuchi, M. (2009). Devil and angel in the renin-angiotensin system: ACE-angiotensin II-AT1 receptor axis vs. ACE2-angiotensin-(1-7)-Mas receptor axis. . Hyperten. Res., 32, 533-536.
  • Jahovic, N., Ercan, F., Gedik, N., Yüksel, M., Şener, G., & Alican, İ. (2005). The effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors on experimental colitis in rats. Regulat. Peptides, 130, 67-74.
  • Jessup, J. A., Gallagher, P. E., Averill, D. B., Brosnihan, K. B., Tallant, E. A., Chappell, M. C., & Ferrario, C. M. (2006). Effect of angiotensin II blockade on a new congenic model of hypertension derived from transgenic Ren-2 rats. Am. J. Physiol. Heart. Circ. Physiol., 291, H2166-H2172.
  • Kantarcı, G., Eren, Z., Yaman, A., İspir, T., Özener, Ç., & Akoğlu, E. (2003). Relationship between angiotensin converting ensyme polymorphism and diabetıc nephropathy and other vascular complications in Turkish patients wıth Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Offic. J. Turk. Soc. Nephrol., 12, 8-15.
  • Laragh, J. H., & Sealey, J. E. (2011). The plasma renin test reveals the contribution of body sodium-volume content (V) and renin-angiotensin (R) vasoconstriction to long-term blood pressure. Am. J. Hypertens., 24, 1164-1180.
  • Li, W., Moore, M. J., Vasilieva, N., Sui, J., Wong, S. K., Berne, M. A., . . . & Farzan, M. (2003). Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature, 426, 450-454.
  • Li, X., Hu, C., Su, F., & Dai, J. (2020). Hypokalemia and clinical implications in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). medRxiv.
  • Lind, L., Lithell, H., Wide, I., & Ljunghall, S. (1992). Metabolic cardiovascular risk factors and the renin-aldosteron system in essential hypertension. J. Hum. Hypertens, 6, 27-29.
  • McIntosh, K. B., W.B., & Chanock, R.M. . (1967). Growth in suckling-mouse brain of “IBV-like” viruses from patients with upper respiratory tract disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 58, 2268-2273.
  • Mehta, P. K., & Griendling, K. (2007). Angiotensin II cell signaling: physiological and pathological effects in the cardiovascular system. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol., 292, 82-97.
  • Meijers, B., Messa, P., & Ronco, C. (2020). Safeguarding the maintenance hemodialysis patient population during the coronavirus disease 19 pandemic. Blood Purif., 49, 259-264.
  • Muller, A. M., Gruhn, K., Lange, S., Franke, F. E., & Müller, K. M. (2004). Angiotesin converting enzyme in the regular pulmonary vasculature. Pathology, 25, 141-146.
  • Nowotny, N., & Kolodziejek, J. (2013). Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in dromedary camels. Oman. Euro Surveill, 19, 20781.
  • Ocaranza, M. P., Riquelme, J. A., & García, L. (2020). Counter-regulatory renin–angiotensin system in cardiovascular disease. Nat. Rev. Cardiol., 17, 116-129.
  • Paul, M., Poyan Mehr, A., & Kreutz, R. (2006). Physiology of local renin-angiotensin systems. Physiol. Rev., 86, 747-803.
  • Perico, L., Benigni, A., & Remuzzi, G. (2020). Should COVID-19 concern nephrologists? Why and to what extent? The emerging impasse of angiotensin blockade. Nephron, 144, 213-221.
  • Ramaya, K., Suresh, R., Kumar, H. Y., Kumar, B. R. P., & Murthya, N. B. S. (2020). Decades-old renin inhibitors are still struggling to find a niche in antihypertensive therapy. A fleeting look at the old and the promising new molecules. . Bioorg. Med. Chem., 28, 115466.
  • Rosendorff, C. (1996). The renin-angiotensin system and vascular hypertrophy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 28, 803-812.
  • Ruiz, J., Blanche, H., Cohen, N., Passa, P., & Froguel, P. (1994). Insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene is strongly associated with coronary hcart disease in noninsulin dependent diabetes mell itus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91, 3662-3665.
  • Saliba, A. E., Santos, S. C., & Vogel, J. (2017). New RNA-seq approaches for the study of bacterial pathogens. Curr Opin Microbiol., 35, 78-87.
  • Schmidt, S., & Ritz, E. (1997). Genetics of the renin-angiotensin system and renal disease: A progress report. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens., 6, 146-151.
  • Serfozo, P., Wysocki, J., Gulua, G., Schulze, A., Ye, M., Liu, P., . . ., & Batlle, D. (2020). Ang II (Angiotensin II) conversion to angiotensin-(1-7) in the circulation is POP (prolyloligopeptidase)-dependent and ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2)-independent. Hypertension, 75, 173-182.
  • Shalaby, M. S., Zakora, M., & Otte, J. (2006). Performance of two commonly used angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibiton assays using FA-PGG and HHL as substrates. J. Dairy Res., 73, 178-186.
  • Skeggs, L. T., Kahn, J. R., & Shumway, N. P. (1956). Preparation and function of the angiotensin - converting enzyme. J. Exp. Med., 103, 259-299.
  • Su, S., Wong, G., Shi, W., Liu, J., Lai, A. C., Zhou, J., . . ., & Gao, G. F. (2016). Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses. Trends in microbiology, 24(6), 490-502.
  • Su, Z., Zimpelmann, J., & Burns, K. D. (2006). Angiotensin-(1-7) inhibits angiotensin II stimulated phosphorylation of MAP kinases in proximal tubular cells. Kidney Int., 69, 2212-2218.
  • Timurkaynak, T. (2009). What is renin inhibition? Mechanism of action. . T. Arch. Turk. Soc. Cardiol., 37(7), 5-14.
  • Touyz, R. M., & Schiffrin, E. L. (2000). Signal transduction mechanisms mediating the physiological and pathophysiological actions of angiotensin II in vascular smooth muscle cells. Pharmacol. Rev., 52, 639-672.
  • Tyrrell, D. A. J., & Bynoe, M. L. (1965). Cultivation of a novel type of common cold virus in organ culture. Br. Med. J., 1, 1467.
  • Vaughan, E. D. J. (1972). Renin, angiotensin and aldosterone system in pathogenesis and management of hypertensive vascular disease. Am. J. Med., 52, 633-652.
  • Weir, M. R., & Rolfe, M. (2010). Potassium homeostasis and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 5, 531-548.
  • Witte, K. H. T., M., & Easterday, B.C. . (1968). Morphologic characteristics and nucleic acid type of transmissible gastroenteritis virus of pigs. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch, 23, 53-70.
  • Yücel, B., & Görmez, A. (2019). SARS-Corona Virus Overview. Turk. J. Appl. Sci. Technol., 2, 32-39.
  • Zaki, A. M., Boheemen, S. v., Bestebroer, T. M., Osterhaus, A. D., & Fouchier, R. A. (2012). Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N. Engl. J. Med., 367, 1814-1820.
  • Zheng, Y. Y., Ma, Y. T., Zhang, J. Y., & Xie, X. (2020). COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nat. Rev. Cardiol., 17, 259-260.
  • Zumla, A., Chan, J. F., Azhar, E. I., Hui, D. S., & Yuen, K. Y. (2016). Coronaviruses-drug discovery and therapeutic options. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov., 15, 327-347.

COVID 19: Anjiyotensin Dönüştürücü Enzim 2 (ACE2), Renin-Anjiyotensin-Aldosteron Sistemi (RAAS) ve Kronik Hastalıklar Arasındaki İlişki

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 2 Sayı: 2, 61 - 72, 30.08.2021

Meryem Topal Sevim Beyza Öztürk Sarıkaya Fevzi Topal

Öz

İnsanlarda enfeksiyonlara neden olan yedinci tip koronavirüs olan SARS CoVID-2 (COVID-19), dünya çapında insan yaşamı için büyük bir tehdit haline gelmiştir. Wuhan’da ortaya çıkan ve oradan da tüm dünyaya yayılan virüs, bugün özellikle yaşlı ve kronik hastalarda (hipertansiyon, Diabetes Mellitus (DM), kalp hastalığı) büyük bir tehdit haline gelmiştir. Bu virüsün niçin kronik hastalarda daha etkili olduğunu bilmek hastalığın önlenmesi veya tedavisinde oldukça önemlidir. Bu nedenle çalışmada COVID-19 virüsünün kronik hastalıklar ile olan ilişkisi anlatılmaktadır. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE2), özellikle böbrek, kalp, karaciğer, ve akciğerler gibi yaşam için önemli organlarda rol almaktadır. COVID-19 virüsünün hücre içerisine girişi ise ACE2 enzimiyledir. Çalışmamızda bu virüsün kronik hastaları diğer insanlardan daha fazla etkilenmesinin nedenleri ve ACE2, Renin-Anjiyotensin-Aldosteron metabolizması ile ilişkisi aydınlatılmaya çalışılmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

ACE 2 Kronik hastalık Corona virüs SARS CoVID-2 COVID-19 Renin

Kaynakça

  • Ahn, D. G., Shin, H. J., Kim, M. H., . . . & Kim, S. J. (2020). Current Status of Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Therapeutics, and Vaccines for Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID 19) Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology,, 30(3), 313-324. Arendse, L. B., Danser, A. H. J., Poglitsch, M., Touyz, R. M., Jr Burnett, J. C., Lorens-Cortes, C., . . . & Sturrock, E. D. (2019). Novel therapeutic approaches targeting the renin-angiotensin system and associated peptides in hypertension and heart failure. Pharmacol Rev., 71(539-570).
  • Baker, K. M., & Kumar, R. (2006). Intracellular angiotensin II induces cell proliferation independent of AT1 receptor. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol, 291, 995-1001.
  • Baur, L. H. B., Schipperheyn, J. J., Laarse, A. v. d., Souverijn, J. H. M., Frolich, M., & de Groot, A. (1995). Combining salicylate and enalapril in patients with coronary artery disease and heart failure. Br. Heart. J., 73, 227-236.
  • Boehm, M., & Nabel, E. G. (2002). Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2-a new cardiac regulator. N. Engl. J. Med., 347, 1795-1797.
  • Burnier, M. (2001). Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers. Circulation, 103, 904-912.
  • Chen, Y., Guo, Y., Pan, Y., & Zhao, Z. J. (2020). Structure analysis of the receptor binding of 2019-nCoV. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 525, 135-140.
  • Corvol, P., Williams, T. A., & Soubrier, F. (1995). Peptidyl dipeptidase A: angiotensin I-converting enzyme. Methods Enzymol., 248, 283-305.
  • Çiçek, Z., Akıllıoğlu, K., & Doğan, A. (2019). Local and Systemic Renin Angiotensin System. Archives Medical Review Journal, 28(4), 259-269.
  • Danser, A. H. J., Epstein, M., & Batlle, D. (2020). Renin-angiotensin system blockers and the COVID-19 pandemic at present there is no evidence to abandon renin-angiotensin system blockers. Hypertension, 75, 1382-1385.
  • Devaux, C. A., Rolain, J. M., & Raoult, D. (2020). ACE2 Receptor polymorphism: Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, hypertension, multi-organ failure, and COVID-19 disease outcome. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect., 53, 425-435.
  • Diao, B., Wang, C., Wang, R., Feng, Z., Tan, Y., Wang, H., . . . & Chen, Y. (2020). Human kidney is a target for novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Front. Immunol., 11, 827.
  • Fehr, A. R., & Perlman, S. (2015). Coronaviruses: An overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Methods Mol. Biol., 1282, 1-23.
  • Ferrario, C. M. J. (2006). Role of angiotensin II in cardiovascular disease-therapeutic implications of more than a century of research. Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst., 7, 3-14.
  • Fisher, N. D., & Hollenberg, N. K. (2005). Renin inhibition: what are the therapeutic opportunities? . J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 16, 592-599.
  • Gradman, A. H., & Kad, R. (2008). Renin inhibition in hypertension. . J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 51, 519-528.
  • Guan, W. J., Ni, Z. Y., Hu, Y., Liang, W. H., Ou, C. Q., He, J. X., . . . & Zhong, N. S. (2020). Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. . N. Engl. J. Med., 382, 1708-1720.
  • Heeneman, S., Sluimer, J., & Daemen, M. J. (2007). Angiotensin-converting enzyme and vascular remodeling. Circ. Res., 101, 441-454.
  • Imai, Y., Kuba, K., Rao, S., Huan, Y., Guo, F., Guan, B., . . . & Penninger, J. M. (2005). Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from severe acute lung failure. Nature, 436, 112-116.
  • Inal, S. (2016). Middle East respiratory syndrome-coronavirus infection. Okmeydani Med. J., 32, 37-45.
  • Iwai, M., & Horiuchi, M. (2009). Devil and angel in the renin-angiotensin system: ACE-angiotensin II-AT1 receptor axis vs. ACE2-angiotensin-(1-7)-Mas receptor axis. . Hyperten. Res., 32, 533-536.
  • Jahovic, N., Ercan, F., Gedik, N., Yüksel, M., Şener, G., & Alican, İ. (2005). The effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors on experimental colitis in rats. Regulat. Peptides, 130, 67-74.
  • Jessup, J. A., Gallagher, P. E., Averill, D. B., Brosnihan, K. B., Tallant, E. A., Chappell, M. C., & Ferrario, C. M. (2006). Effect of angiotensin II blockade on a new congenic model of hypertension derived from transgenic Ren-2 rats. Am. J. Physiol. Heart. Circ. Physiol., 291, H2166-H2172.
  • Kantarcı, G., Eren, Z., Yaman, A., İspir, T., Özener, Ç., & Akoğlu, E. (2003). Relationship between angiotensin converting ensyme polymorphism and diabetıc nephropathy and other vascular complications in Turkish patients wıth Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Offic. J. Turk. Soc. Nephrol., 12, 8-15.
  • Laragh, J. H., & Sealey, J. E. (2011). The plasma renin test reveals the contribution of body sodium-volume content (V) and renin-angiotensin (R) vasoconstriction to long-term blood pressure. Am. J. Hypertens., 24, 1164-1180.
  • Li, W., Moore, M. J., Vasilieva, N., Sui, J., Wong, S. K., Berne, M. A., . . . & Farzan, M. (2003). Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature, 426, 450-454.
  • Li, X., Hu, C., Su, F., & Dai, J. (2020). Hypokalemia and clinical implications in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). medRxiv.
  • Lind, L., Lithell, H., Wide, I., & Ljunghall, S. (1992). Metabolic cardiovascular risk factors and the renin-aldosteron system in essential hypertension. J. Hum. Hypertens, 6, 27-29.
  • McIntosh, K. B., W.B., & Chanock, R.M. . (1967). Growth in suckling-mouse brain of “IBV-like” viruses from patients with upper respiratory tract disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 58, 2268-2273.
  • Mehta, P. K., & Griendling, K. (2007). Angiotensin II cell signaling: physiological and pathological effects in the cardiovascular system. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol., 292, 82-97.
  • Meijers, B., Messa, P., & Ronco, C. (2020). Safeguarding the maintenance hemodialysis patient population during the coronavirus disease 19 pandemic. Blood Purif., 49, 259-264.
  • Muller, A. M., Gruhn, K., Lange, S., Franke, F. E., & Müller, K. M. (2004). Angiotesin converting enzyme in the regular pulmonary vasculature. Pathology, 25, 141-146.
  • Nowotny, N., & Kolodziejek, J. (2013). Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in dromedary camels. Oman. Euro Surveill, 19, 20781.
  • Ocaranza, M. P., Riquelme, J. A., & García, L. (2020). Counter-regulatory renin–angiotensin system in cardiovascular disease. Nat. Rev. Cardiol., 17, 116-129.
  • Paul, M., Poyan Mehr, A., & Kreutz, R. (2006). Physiology of local renin-angiotensin systems. Physiol. Rev., 86, 747-803.
  • Perico, L., Benigni, A., & Remuzzi, G. (2020). Should COVID-19 concern nephrologists? Why and to what extent? The emerging impasse of angiotensin blockade. Nephron, 144, 213-221.
  • Ramaya, K., Suresh, R., Kumar, H. Y., Kumar, B. R. P., & Murthya, N. B. S. (2020). Decades-old renin inhibitors are still struggling to find a niche in antihypertensive therapy. A fleeting look at the old and the promising new molecules. . Bioorg. Med. Chem., 28, 115466.
  • Rosendorff, C. (1996). The renin-angiotensin system and vascular hypertrophy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 28, 803-812.
  • Ruiz, J., Blanche, H., Cohen, N., Passa, P., & Froguel, P. (1994). Insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene is strongly associated with coronary hcart disease in noninsulin dependent diabetes mell itus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91, 3662-3665.
  • Saliba, A. E., Santos, S. C., & Vogel, J. (2017). New RNA-seq approaches for the study of bacterial pathogens. Curr Opin Microbiol., 35, 78-87.
  • Schmidt, S., & Ritz, E. (1997). Genetics of the renin-angiotensin system and renal disease: A progress report. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens., 6, 146-151.
  • Serfozo, P., Wysocki, J., Gulua, G., Schulze, A., Ye, M., Liu, P., . . ., & Batlle, D. (2020). Ang II (Angiotensin II) conversion to angiotensin-(1-7) in the circulation is POP (prolyloligopeptidase)-dependent and ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2)-independent. Hypertension, 75, 173-182.
  • Shalaby, M. S., Zakora, M., & Otte, J. (2006). Performance of two commonly used angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibiton assays using FA-PGG and HHL as substrates. J. Dairy Res., 73, 178-186.
  • Skeggs, L. T., Kahn, J. R., & Shumway, N. P. (1956). Preparation and function of the angiotensin - converting enzyme. J. Exp. Med., 103, 259-299.
  • Su, S., Wong, G., Shi, W., Liu, J., Lai, A. C., Zhou, J., . . ., & Gao, G. F. (2016). Epidemiology, genetic recombination, and pathogenesis of coronaviruses. Trends in microbiology, 24(6), 490-502.
  • Su, Z., Zimpelmann, J., & Burns, K. D. (2006). Angiotensin-(1-7) inhibits angiotensin II stimulated phosphorylation of MAP kinases in proximal tubular cells. Kidney Int., 69, 2212-2218.
  • Timurkaynak, T. (2009). What is renin inhibition? Mechanism of action. . T. Arch. Turk. Soc. Cardiol., 37(7), 5-14.
  • Touyz, R. M., & Schiffrin, E. L. (2000). Signal transduction mechanisms mediating the physiological and pathophysiological actions of angiotensin II in vascular smooth muscle cells. Pharmacol. Rev., 52, 639-672.
  • Tyrrell, D. A. J., & Bynoe, M. L. (1965). Cultivation of a novel type of common cold virus in organ culture. Br. Med. J., 1, 1467.
  • Vaughan, E. D. J. (1972). Renin, angiotensin and aldosterone system in pathogenesis and management of hypertensive vascular disease. Am. J. Med., 52, 633-652.
  • Weir, M. R., & Rolfe, M. (2010). Potassium homeostasis and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 5, 531-548.
  • Witte, K. H. T., M., & Easterday, B.C. . (1968). Morphologic characteristics and nucleic acid type of transmissible gastroenteritis virus of pigs. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch, 23, 53-70.
  • Yücel, B., & Görmez, A. (2019). SARS-Corona Virus Overview. Turk. J. Appl. Sci. Technol., 2, 32-39.
  • Zaki, A. M., Boheemen, S. v., Bestebroer, T. M., Osterhaus, A. D., & Fouchier, R. A. (2012). Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N. Engl. J. Med., 367, 1814-1820.
  • Zheng, Y. Y., Ma, Y. T., Zhang, J. Y., & Xie, X. (2020). COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system. Nat. Rev. Cardiol., 17, 259-260.
  • Zumla, A., Chan, J. F., Azhar, E. I., Hui, D. S., & Yuen, K. Y. (2016). Coronaviruses-drug discovery and therapeutic options. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov., 15, 327-347.
Toplam 55 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Sağlık Kurumları Yönetimi
Bölüm Derleme
Yazarlar

Meryem Topal 0000-0002-2107-8603

Sevim Beyza Öztürk Sarıkaya 0000-0002-7820-4260

Fevzi Topal 0000-0002-2443-2372

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Ağustos 2021
Gönderilme Tarihi 24 Şubat 2021
Kabul Tarihi 28 Mayıs 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Cilt: 2 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Topal, M., Öztürk Sarıkaya, S. B., & Topal, F. (2021). COVID 19: The Relationship Among Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE 2), Renin-Angiotensin-Aldesterone System (RAS), and Chronic Diseases. KTO Karatay Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(2), 61-72.
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